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NPS 61-89-003

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

Monterey, California

THESIS

j—_——

Development of a Differential Temperature Probe for the Measurement of Atmospheric Turbulence at All Levels

Michael Roy Olmstead December 1988

(nests Aavisor. Dei. Walters

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Strategic Defense Initiative Organization 1717 H. Street Washington, DC 20301

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey, CA 93943

Rear Admiral R. C. Austin H. Shull Superintendent Provost

This thesis prepared in conjunction with research sponsered in part by the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization with funds provided by the Naval Postgraduate School under NPS 61-89-003.

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7a NAME OF MONITORING ORGANIZATION

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1717 H Street 5000 t Washington, D.C. 20301

iterey, California 93943-

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PROGRAM PROJECT TASK WORK UNIT iterey, California 93943- 5000 ELEMENT NO ACCESSION NO

TITLE (include Security Classification) relopment of a Differential Temperature Probe for the Measurement of Atmospheric Turbulence

All Levels

2ERSONAL AUTHOR(S) mstead, Michael R. in conjunction with Donald L. Walters

TYPE OF REPORT 13b TIME COVERED 14 DATE OF REPORT (Year, Month, Day) [15 PAGE COUNT

iter's Thesis FROM TO 1988 December 92

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTATION

‘The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official

policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.

COSATI CODES 18 SUBJECT TERMS (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number) FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Atmospheric Optics, Atmospheric Turbulence, Temperature

iii Structure Parameter, Acoustic Echosounder, Temperature Probe

ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number)

Fluctuating temperature structures in the atmosphere induce phase perturbations in a propagating laser beam. These turbulent conditions occur throughout the atmosphere and cause the laser beam to spread and alter its centroid. There are several methods to measure the parameters of optical turbulence in the atmosphere, but few that will determine them as a function of altitude at all levels. One method of measuring altitude profiles of turbulence is with a temperature probe launched via a balloon system.

This thesis involves the development of a differential temperature probe sensor to measure the temperature fluctuations at all altitudes in the atmosphere. In addition, it investigates the effect of solar heating on the probes in the atmosphere and the subsequent effects on the measurements. A validation of the probe system was made by a comparison

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NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL 22b TELEPHONE (Include Area Code) | 22c OFFICE SYMBOL Dw. L. Walters (408) 646-2267 61We

- -- 2

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a ee SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE

19. (Continued)

test with an acoustic echosounder developed earlier. In addition to validating the probe system, the absolute C analysis of the echosounder was confirmed.

ii ap

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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Development of a Differential Temperature Probe for the Measurement of Atmospheric Turbulence at All Levels

Michael Roy Olmstead Lieutenant, United States Navy B.S., United States Naval Academy, 1981 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

from the

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL December 1988

ABSTRACT

the echosounder was confirmed.

vy,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION St eGR ES oa ee ier ACKGROUND ees 2. 2 6 ww wl tt A. TURBULENCE PARAMETERS o 6 © 6 « B. SCALE LENGTHS oo Ce C. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS oo we. Ill. SYSTEM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT o 8

Peover iER CIRCUIT ~ . . .« »« »« « «

B. THERMOCOUPLE Oe

mee COMPUTER AND CODE . . «6 1. « «© « «

D. SOLAR HEATING ...... +... « »

IV. RESULTS 5 Gos oases

A. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE So) eu ieee

BreeecocALE SIZE ERRORS «© . 5 2 « « ‘ues

C. ANALYSIS OF DATA ee ee eee V. CONCLUSIONS SST EES APPENDIX A PROBE SYSTEM SOFTWARE —— APPENDIX B SOLAR HEATING PROGRAM ee APPENDIX C CONDUCTANCE PROGRAM jee eee APPENDIX D DATA FROM COMPARISON TEST oe LIST OF REFERENCES eee ee es aro ve BIBLIOGRAPHY Soe 6 Geo ee

Bietienl DESTRIBUTION LIST .... . +. « -

Figure

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

Figure

Figure Figure

Figure

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

TS]

16.

17.

18.

BIST OCF eFiIcuRes

Comparison of LASER Beam Propagating Through

Vacuum and Atmosphere, showing r,

Two Sources Showing the Effects of the Isoplanatic Angle .

Spectrum of Turbulence Over All

Lengths .... .

Noise and Gain Characteristics

OPCAMP.. . ao eeee

Noise and Gain Characteristics of

OP AMP. . =... «

Schematic Diagram of Differential Amplifier

Scale

of the LT1028

the LT1057

Noise Spectrum of Amplifier Circuit .

Noise Output of Probe System.

Photo of Circuit and Thermocouple Probe .

Schematic of Thermocouple Probe.

Response Time Versus Wind Speed of a -00254 cm Copper-Constantan Thermocouple

Comparison of AFGL Model and Campbell’s

Model of Solar Heating of Thermocouple .

Comparison of Convective Conductance

Corrected Comparison of solar heating.

Hot Wire Anemometer Effect on Copper Constantan Thermocouples

Differences Between the Curves of Figure

15 e ® e e

Hot Wire Anemometer Effect on 4 micron

Tungsten Wire. .

Layout of Acoustic Echosounder

Device([Ref. 28].

ADs,

37,

Figure 19. Echosounder Trace and cr Measurement and Probe Measurement During Strong Turbulence . .

Figure 20. Echosounder Trace and e Measurement and Probe Measurement During Light Turbulence...

Figure 21. Echosounder Trace and lg Measurement and Probe Measurement During No Turbulence... .

Figure 22. % Error Induced by a Limiting Outer Scale Length e e e e e e e e ® e e e e e e e e e e e

Figure 23. Spatial power spectrum @, of temperature fluctuations versus scaled wave number xn. Solid curve is actual model; the dashed curve is Tatarski’s model.{Ref. 30] .....

Figure 24. Comparison of Data From Acoustic Echosounder and Temperature Probe Before Correction for Demo Sem. 6 te ee ee eae ne es en Paes Ae . o>

Figure 25. Comparison of Data From Acoustic Echosounder

and Temperature Probe After Correction for Demonic et. eis eees ol a) css 4) 6 eS 6 4 ee Uw Ce CS

Vil

I. INTRODUCTION

Atmospheric conditions will cause severe degradation along the optical path of a ground to space weapon or Surveillance laser. There are several causes for this degradation, they are 1) absorption and scattering by aerosols such as rain and clouds, 2) distortion by thermal blooming and 3) distortion by atmospheric turbulence ([Ref. 1]. Absorption and scattering can be controlled by varying the wavelengths of the laser and having multiple sites to insure at least one has a cloud free line of sight. Thermal blooming is the heating of the medium, through which the laser beam propagates. It is due to absorption of the radiation by molecules and aerosols and the consequent distortion of the beam due to density reductions brought on by the heating. Choosing approximate wavelengths of the laser which have low atmospheric absorption in the atmosphere reduces this effect. Atmospheric turbulence is difficult to deal with since there is no way to avoid it.

The major effect of turbulence on an optical beam is the limitation of the mutual coherence lengths. For example, an average ground to space coherence length for the atmosphere

is on the order of 5 cm therefore a ground based laser having

a 4 meter diameter mirror will deliver less then 1/1000 of its original power onto a target. Adaptive optics provides a means for reducing these turbulent effects. It corrects for the effects of turbulence by altering the wavefront characteristics of a beam [Ref. 2] using deformable mirrors or nonlinear optical materials such as Barium Titanate.

Measurements of the turbulence from the surface to an altitude where the turbulence is no longer significant (approximately 30 km.) are needed for several reasons. The most important is to be able to characterize the turbulent profiles of the atmosphere at different locations in order to select the best site for a ground based optical or surveillance system. Each site will have a different turbulence profile since it depends on the local geography as well as the upper atmospheric conditions controlled by general meteorological patterns. Another reason for the measurements is to determine vertical distribution of the turbulence parameters, such as the coherence length, which affect the design of adaptive optics systems, or the signal processing transformations in a surveillance system.

There are several instruments for measuring turbulence parameters, some of which measure the index of refraction structure parameter and others that measure the temperature structure parameter. Some of the methods include analysis of

star trails on photographic emulsions [Ref. 3], an

isoplanometer which measures the isoplanatic angle through stellar scintillation [Ref. 4], and a Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) device for determining the coherence length fRef.. 5]. These devices measure important integrated parameters but they cannot measure the vertical profile of turbulence. An acoustic echosounder which is similar in design and construction to a SONAR [Ref. 6], measures a vertical profile but is usually limited to several hundred meters range. Greater vertical resolution occurs at the expense of decreased maximum range.

In order to get a measurement of the vertical profile of turbulence to 20-50 km a device must be able to be launched on a sounding balloon or an aircraft. An example of this type of device is the thermosonde originally designed by GTE Sylvania and revised by the Air Force Weapons Laboratory and Tri-Con Associates Inc. and built and used by the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory [Ref. 7].

This thesis is an attempt to design and build a temperature sensing probe system to measure the vertical profile of the temperature structure parameter which is a measure of the vertical profile of turbulence. Although such systems exist, they are 1) expensive, greater than $2000 per launch and 2) require extensive calibration. The purpose of this thesis was to develop an inexpensive device (the system

cost is approximately $150 per launch) which is simple to

operate (it is a self-calibrating device). Additionally the effects of solar heating of the probes are investigated.

The results of a comparison with a well developed acoustic echosounder indicates the system will be effective in measuring turbulence in the atmosphere. The studies of the solar heating effects indicate the only source of error due to solar heating would be from the sun/shade effect on the two probes and if that is corrected for, it will be accurate up

to 30 km.

II. BACKGROUND A. TURBULENCE PARAMETERS

Small temperature variations carried by the turbulent velocity field in the atmosphere produce small phase perturbations in an optical plane wave propagating through it. These perturbations randomly distort and convolve the phase of a plane wave. There are three atmospheric parameters which must be determined prior to any attempt made at compensating for these atmospheric distortions. These parameters are the refractive turbulence structure parameter, Ce, the spatial coherence length of the atmosphere, r,, and the isoplanatic angle 6,.

The most important of these parameters is Cite Tatarski (Ref. 3] states that one way to deal with a non-stationary problem, which includes all atmospheric parameters, is to define a function in terms of a difference, he than defines the structure function for index of refraction as,

Df ysFo) =<(NTo)-MF,)]°> | (1)

y I

where < > denotes an ensemble average. If we assume the atmosphere to be homogeneous and isotropic over small regions

the structure function can be rewritten as,

D(x) = <{N(r5)-N(r,) ]°>, @)

where r is r,-r,. By dimensional analysis Kolomogorov [Ref. 3] showed that the structure function has an r” dependency.

Consequently D, is proportional to a constant Cle timesiro as

2.2/3 De = Aeoar ee (3) oh is the refractive turbulence structure parameter, a mean- square statistical average of the difference in the index of

refraction between two points separated by r,,, 2 2 2/3 C* = <(NS=ND) “>/r..7. (4)

The xr’? normalization extends from an inner scale 1,, on the order of millimeters, to an outer scale of L,, on the order of meters (Ref. 3]. These fluctuations in the index of refraction arise from variations in density caused by temperature fluctuations in the turbulent velocity field.

These density variations in the atmosphere alter the phase of an optical beam being propagated through it. The Optical Transfer Function (OTF) characterizes the integrated phase perturbations of an optical beam. It is a measure of the

correlation of the electric fields of the optical beam

perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Although the atmosphere is not homogeneous or isotropic, Tatarski (Ref. 8] postulates the idea of local homogeneity and isotropy, which states that over some region R, comparable to the outer scale length L,, we can assume the atmospheric random variables are homogeneous and isotropic. The modulus of the OTF is the atmospheric Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). Fried (Ref. 9] introduces the parameter r, to characterize the MTF. It is

related to the refractive turbulence structure parameter by, ie ~3/5 rT, = 2.1 146k? C *(a)d2| ' (5) g 2

where r, is the spatial coherence length, k is the wave number (2x/\), and ae is the refractive turbulence structure parameter along the optical path of length L (Ref. 5).

The other measure of spatial coherence in the atmosphere is the isoplanatic angle ¢,. It is similar to r, in that it is the dependence of the optical transfer function of a system for different angles to the source. The two parameters r, and 6, are conjugate pairs. §@, looking up is equivalent to r, divided by the path length looking down [Ref. 4] and vice versa. A more formal definition is that ¢@, is an angular measure of spatial coherence, it is the limiting angle for

which an electromagnetic wave from a source will follow the

same optical path length to a receiver.

VACUUM a eee

2 pe - ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE |

Css eee MATE

— — a

=>) faoaelens A 4 AT oe

Figure 1. Comparison of LASER Beam Propagating Through Vacuum and Atmosphere, showing r,.

Light From Born Light From Each Objects Follows Similar Object Follows Different Optical Paths Optical Path

Figure 2. Two Sources Showing the Effects of the Isoplanatic Angle.

If we consider two paths through the turbulence, the isoplanatic angle relates the mutual coherence e point of the E field between the two paths. Fried [Ref. 9] expresses the isoplanatic angle’s dependence on CH as, L —3/5 fe 2.9054") C.,*(2)2°/ aa] - where z is the altitude. Note the z’” spherical weighting factor that emphasizes turbulence far from the optical systen. The preceding paragraphs clearly show the importance of the e: parameter, it not only defines the measure of turbulence, it also determines the spatial coherence r, and the isoplanatic angle ¢@,. The problem lies in that high resolution profiles of ome are difficult to measure, it requires complex detectors and optical imaging systems. Instead we can define a temperature structure parameter ee

similar to C,* where, 2 2 2/3 Cen T3= THiS mse", (7)

which can be measured by several different methods. The fluctuations of the index of refraction are due_ to fluctuations in the density of the atmosphere and if we can assume that the density fluctuations are due solely to

temperature fluctuations, then ex is related to Gis by,

6 2 _ |79x10 °P| , 2 = = C (8) “

where P is the atmospheric pressure in millibars and T is the atmospheric temperature in Kelvins [Ref. 10]. The assumption that index of refraction fluctuations are due only to temperature fluctuations and that humidity fluctuations are insignificant, is valid when the Bowen Ratio B (ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux) is greater than 0.3 [Refs. 11,12]. Below this value, humidity fluctuations are

significant.

B. SCALE LENGTHS

In Kolomogorov’s definition of the structure function he assumed local homogeneity over a region bounded by the inner and outer scale lengths 1, and L,. These scale lengths vary from hundreds of meters at the outer scale lengths down to millimeters for the inner scale lengths [Ref. 13]. The outer scale length is the size of the turbulent fluctuations at the onset, while at the inner scale viscosity dissipates the energy of turbulence as heat. Kolomogorov called the region between 1, and L, the inertial subrange and as long as the distance r, in Equations (4) and (7), is within this inertial subrange these equations are valid. Kolomogorov expressed the

power spectral density of the turbulence in this region by,

= 2 -1]] 3 ( K) 0.033C “K / . Ss

where 2nL, | << K << AVI Von Karman took this definition

further to include the ranges for eddy sizes greater than L,,

: -11/6 (11/6) « Rime F st >, (K) =r ae 8 <O,, > Ly Li ; F (10) K O

where K=20L,| and <6 *> is the variance of the refractivity fluctuations and is related to aly by,

2 2 2/3 Giese <6 >K 2, (11)

(Ref. 10]. Figure 3 shows the spectrum of turbulence for all scale lengths, the inertial subrange shows Kolomogorov’s linear description of turbulence while in the regions above 2n1,! viscosity effects dominate and below 2nL, | Von Karman’s spectrum defines the turbulence [Ref. 14].

It is important to understand the effects of the turbulence spectrum in all three regions because of the errors introduced due to the lack of correlation in the regions above and below the inertial subrange. Care must be taken in choosing the correct value of r to cover the scale lengths inside the inertial subrange. Additionally the temporal

frequency of the turbulent fluctuations is related to the wave

number K and the wind speed moving the turbulence past the probes. Therefore to measure the thin transition layers in the atmosphere accurately [(Ref. 15] the errors due to various scale sizes must be determined. These calculations will be

carried out in Chapter 4.

SPECTRUM OF TURBULENCE FOR ALL SCALE LENGTHS

In of Structure Function

¢————- INERTIAL SUBRANGE ————+>

2Pixi7 2Pix%}7t o o

In of K

Figure 3. Spectrum of Turbulence Over All Scale Lengths.

C. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

A fast response time temperature probe attached to a sounding balloon system can measure the vertical profile of the temperature structure parameter. The design of the

temperature probe system provides a simple, low cost method

that is capable of resolving the thin stratified layers of a stable atmosphere and determining the temperature gradient, thickness, and turbulence of these layers. In designing the system the key points of consideration were 1) what type of probe geometry and thereby what type of circuitry and 2) what type of temperature sensing element to use.

The probe system could use a differential measurement or a single point probe. The advantage of the single point probe is that it can measure Ge from either the variance of the data, knowing the balloon ascent rate, or by analyzing the power spectral density.However, this would require a high data rate (several samples per second), which the radiosonde systems used do not have. Although a differential system would not have as high a vertical resolution it has the advantage of providing partially reduced data which relaxes the need for a high data rate. Therefore a differential system greatly simplifies the telemetry needed for the system at the expense of more complexity in the sensor itself.The resolution for the system would still be satisfactory, about 2 meters of vertical resolution for a balloon with an ascent rate of 2 meters per second.

There are several different choices for the probes. They can be made from resistance wires, thermistors, or thermocouples. The resistance wire is simply a fine wire, such

as platinum or tungsten, with a known resistance as a function

of temperature. The problem with a resistance wire for this application is that it requires some means of self-calibration due to its dependence on Ohm’s law and temperature. A thermistor is a small semiconductor device which changes its resistance as a function of temperature. It has a larger change in resistance vs. temperature then a metal wire, although it is non-linear. However, thermistors are large compared to a fine wire, having a larger thermal mass than a probe made from a fine wire, which increases the response time and the susceptibility to solar heating of the device. Additionally, both the thermistor and the resistance wire require a current source which not only increases the complexity of the circuit but also introduces a self heating factor. A thermocouple consists of two fine wires made of dissimilar metals welded together, which produces a voltage difference proportional to the temperature. For an in-depth discussion of thermocouples and the thermoelectric effect, see Refs. 16 and 17. Commercially available thermocouples can be made of very fine wire (down to 12.5 wm) thereby reducing the thermal mass and producing a faster response time. A disadvantage of a thermocouple is that the response to temperature is small, typically 40 ,zV/°K. This places severe requirements on low noise signal processing. An operational requirement for this type of device would be the Knowledge of

the mean atmospheric temperature to calculate the Seebeck

Coefficient, which is the derivative of the thermal emf with respect to the temperature. Since the rawinsonde system used with the probe provides this data, it is easily accomplished. Small temperature changes of 1° C or less, are expected from the two probes in a differential system. This produces a negligible change in the Seebeck coefficient therefore no calibration of this type of device is needed, other than

knowing the gains of the electronic amplifiers.

ie.

III. SYSTEM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

A. AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

The probe system consists of a pair of thermocouples connected in series and held rigidly 1 meter apart by an aluminum tube. An amplifier circuit requires high voltage gain and very low noise to be able to discriminate the signal from the background due to the low voltage produced by thermocouples (on the order of pvolts per degree). It also requires an analog root mean square device to calculate <(T,- IB)

Since the purpose of the system is to measure temperature differences on the order of hundredths and thousandths of a degree and the thermocouple output voltage is about 40 microvolts per degree C the circuit must have a very high gain with ultra low self noise. Therefore the circuit must be carefully designed and built to reduce any sources of noise wherever possible, by methods such as matching resistor values as exact as possible and placing them as close as possible to each other to reduce the thermal drift. Other examples include thermal insulation for the entire circuit and RF shielding for

the circuit as well as the probe. The most critical component

of the circuit is the ultra low noise, precision, high speed op amps which have voltage noises less than those of 50 ohm resistors.

The circuit (designed by Prof. Don Walters and fabricated by Dale Galarowicz) is a low noise, wide bandwidth Instrumentation amplifier. Three operational amplifiers produce a gain of 10,000 and a combination low and high pass filter with a gain of 5 producing a total voltage gain of 50,000. The circuit contains two Linear Technologies LT1028 ultra low noise precision high speed op amps in the instrumentation amplifier portion of the circuit. These op amps have a gain bandwidth product of 75 MHz and a self noise of 0.85 nVv/Hz2'/? at the frequencies desired. Figure 4 shows the noise and frequency characteristics of this op amp. The filter for the circuit uses an LT1057 op amp whose noise and frequency response characteristics are shown in Figure 5. Based on the frequency response curves in Figures 4 and 5 (Ref. 18} and the high pass filter the circuit has a frequency response from 0.16 Hz to 200 Hz. The other major component of the circuit is an Analog Devices AD637 high precision, wide band RMS-DC converter. It has a bandwidth of 600KHz at 100mvV RMS and an averaging time constant of 25 msec/micro F. The .entire circuit is powered by two 9 volt dry cells. Figure 6

is a complete schematic diagram of the circuit.

——_

VOLTAGE NOISE DENSITY (nV/. Hz)

—_

Voltage Norse (nV/vy Hz)

Voltage Noise vs Frequency Voltage Gain vs Frequency

10 cy 160 — Vo= = 15V ——— i | tig - Iv C— 1 f — . MAXi MUM -—— 7 : | Ry = 2k ROTrEN 120 = mS 10 rae 2 ae on ! = 80 10 = —— ae ia : ‘ : j = © 60 171 CORNER = 3.5H2 = in am fo! S Gan een See a S 40 re Ga peel be me ae “TL a — fomelen si 0.1 | 4 0.1 1 10 100 1900 : 001 0.1 1 10 If) 1h 10K 190 1M 10M 100M FREQUENCY (Hz) FREQUENCY (H2)

Figure 4. Noise and Gain Characteristics of the LT1028 OP AMP.

OPEN-LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

INPUT VOLTAGE =r =e ae

1k dA Ne “ nal EEE tt $ = s a & -90 Se ae ty ‘ cot $ rite El | ’ (EGHIEHH ailia iit i 100 10k OOk 1M om Sess (Hz) — (Hz)

Figure 5. Noise and Gain Characteristics of the LT1057 OP AMP.

(s2a169qQ) Wius aseud

iNan Lov,

QO BIISAHG

" 400HIS 3LWNOVYUDLSOG TWAWN

39un0& -4A oot Ot”

B0uNOS -A

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tty 39unos «4A

189

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AGB ‘AuaLIVS —

AG “AYSLLIVE =

Ova8 ay ecotls

ram of Differential

Amplifier.

Diag

Figure 6. Schematic

The circuit has to be well shielded against RF interference due to the high gain of the circuit and the fact it will be operated in the atmosphere where it is highly susceptible to all types of RF signals. Additionally the thermocouple wires must be stretched out over a distance of 1 meter and will act as an antenna. The aluminum tube shields them from RFI except at the two endpoints, greatly reducing extraneous signals. The circuit is inclosed in a styrofoam casing, to reduce thermal gradients across the circuit, which is then covered in aluminum foil. The circuit itself has ferrite beads and an LC filter, at the inputs, to further shield the op amps from RFI and the entire circuit is built on a ground plane which has been grounded with the foil shield.

The result of the aluminum foil and styrofoam shielding and use of ultra low noise op amps is an amplifier capable of measuring the extremely small voltages produced by the thermocouple probes. The circuit was tested in the anechoic chamber in the basement of Spanagel Hall to minimize any temperature fluctuations and then measurements of the circuits self noise were taken. Figure 7 shows the noise spectrum measured by a Hewlett Packard HP3561A Dynamic Signal Analyzer. The large noise spike below 1 Hz is due to 1/f or flicker noise which occurs in all amplifiers, due in large part to

surface leakage of transistors (Ref. 19]. Although the noise

normally occurs at frequencies up to 100Hz it has been reduced by the use of a high pass filter. The noise spike at 60Hz is due to AC powered equipment operating in the anechoic chamber. This‘noise should vanish when the system is used in the field, since it is powered by DC batteries, as long as care is taken to insure it is not near a large AC power source. The plot clearly shows the self noise output of the circuit is well below 100 microVolts/Hz'/”* in the frequencies of interest. Since the circuit gain is 50,000 and the Seebeck coefficient is on the order of 40 microVolts per degree this translates

into a noise induced measurement of less than 0.00005°C/Hz'/*.

RANGE: 1 dBV STATUS: PAUSED RMS: 100

A: MATH SGRT (MAG*2 / BW)

FAROE Bw: 954.85 mkz SrOr:) 200 HZ

Figure 7. Noise Spectrum of Amplifier Circuit.

Zor

The entire system was set-up and run in the anechoic chamber with caps on the exposed thermocouples to further reduce the signal. After running for about 2 hours to let all air currents in the chamber settle, the system produced the results shown in Figure 8. This shows the noise produced by the circuit introduced an error corresponding to a cis of less than 10°, which is two orders of Magnitude lower than the lowest ex needed for a usable probe system. These results indicate the circuit self noise is well below that which would have a degrading effect on the results.

The entire circuit package measures 3" X 3" xX 3" and weighs less than six ounces.

B. THERMOCOUPLE

In 1821 Thomas Seebeck discovered that two wires of dissimilar metals joined at one end and heated produce a voltage difference across the open ends. This voltage is a function of the junction temperature and the composition of the two metals. Since that time, many different thermocouple types have been produced based on the combination of the two different metals used and having different thermoelectric and physical properties. The requirements for the system included use in the atmosphere from the surface to 20 km, therefore the temperatures vary from 30° C to -30° C with as large a Seebeck

coefficient as possible. The Seebeck coefficient is the slope

- Te.

mal | cri

fice p 1fce eros

C) m 12 “ —P 4

Wd I

—_ hey I be

— —_

‘ — '

-—~ — oh

} ai

— t wo ee T ’ : 1 : T

=F =~ : a = a aa 16:28 le:esS le: 36

Time €bLocatl?

Figure 8. Noise Output of Probe System.

Figure 9. Photo of Circuit and Thermocouple Probe

of the voltage versus temperature curve at a given temperature. Based on these requirements the T type or Copper- Constantan thermocouple was selected. An alternative choice would be the E type or Chromel-Constantan thermocouple.

The cCopper-Constantan thermocouple is composed of a copper wire and a 55% copper 45% nickel wire. It has a temperature range of -200° C to 350° C and is suitable for applications where moisture is present. Table 1 shows the thermoelectric voltages referenced to 0° C for a Copper- Constantan thermocouple based on the National Bureau of Standards reference tables.

Table 1 sieve that the Seebeck coefficient, which is the unit difference in voltage for each temperature change, is not linear over the entire temperature range. To determine the Seebeck coefficient, daV/dt, valid over the entire temperature range desired, the data over the temperature range desired from Table 1 was plotted and then a polynomial regression was performed to find the equation of the curve. The derivative oimiiite curve was taken to find the Seebeck coefficient. A fifth order polynomial fits the data from -100° C to 30°C. The Seebeck Coefficient for a Copper-Constantan thermocouple is,

AV/dt=3.8707x10°+8 .5348x10 °t-3.3135x10°'t’ ~2.77432xX10 ’t°-1.253x10' ''t", (12)

CEO C

140

150 160 170 180 190

200 210 220 230 240

250 260 270 260 290

300 310 320 330 340

330 360 370 380 390

400

OFG C

Table 1

VOLTAGES FOR A TYPE T THERMOCOUPLE

-6.238 -6.232 -6.181

-6.105 -6.007 -5.889 -3.733 -3.603

-5.439 -5.26) -5.069 -4.865 ~4,646

-4,419 -4,177 -3.923 =-3,636 -3,378

=-3.089 -2,768 2,475 -2.152 -1.819

=).475 “1.121 -9.757? -0.363

0.000

0-000 0.39) 0.789 1.196 1.631

2.035 2.467? 2.906 3.357? 3.813

a.277 &, 749 $,227 $,712 6-204

6.702 7,207 7.718 0.235 0,797

9.286 9,620 10.360 10.908 11.456

12,011 12.572 13.137 13.707 14.26)

14,860 15,443 16.030 16.62) 17,217

17,616 16.420 19,027 19.638 20.252

20.869

—-6.236 -6.18?

-6.114 -6.018 -$.901 -$.767 -35.619

-5.456 -S$.279 -5.089 -4.866 -4,670

—4.442 -4.202 -3.949 -3.684 -3.407

-3.318 -2.618 -2.507 -2.185 -1.653

-1.$10 “1.137 “0.794 -0.421 -0-039

0-039 0.430 0.830 1.23? 1.633

2.078 2-51) 22-953 3-402 3-659

&e324 aoe 5.275 $2761 60254

6.733 72258 7.769 6.287 6.810

Go339 9.874 10.414 10.960 11.991

12.067 12.628 13.194 13.764 14.339

14.918 15.501 16.089 16.681 17.277

17.677 16.%860 19.0886 19.699 20.314

THERMOELECTRIC VOLTAGE 1M ABSOLUTE MILL VOLTS

-6.239 —-6.193

6.122 -6.0286 “3.914 -5.782 -5.634

-5.473 -$.297 -5.109 -&.907 4.693

-4.466 -4.226 -3.974 “3.711 -3.43$

-3.147 -2.84%9 2.539 -2.216 -1.886

-1-544 -1).392 “0-830 “0.458 “0.077

0.076 0-470 0-870 1.279 1.695

22192) 22535 20997 3.447 3.906

&.37) &.846 $.324 $.610 6.303

6.803 7.309 7.021 8.3939 6,063

9.3992 9.926 10.469 11.015 11.566

12.123 12.664 13.25) 13.62) 14.6396

14.976 13.360 16.148 16.740 17.336

17.937 16.54) 19,349 19.76) 20-376

62242 -¢.196

-6-130 -6.939 -5.926 -3.795 -5.630

-3,409 5.315 -5.128 -4.9286 “6,715

-4.4609 -4,251 -4.000 -3.737 -3.463

“3.177 =-2.679 -2.370 -2.230 -1.920

-1.579 -1.-228 0667 -0.496 —Oo116

Ooll? 0-310 0-911 1.320 12736

20164 2.599 36042 3.493 32952

&.4)6 &.691 $372 $.859 6.333

6,653 70360 7.872 0.39) 6.915

9.446 9.962 10.323 11.070 11.622

12.179 12.741 13.307 13.679 14.434

15.034 15.619 16207 1¢.600 17.396

17.997 16.602 19.210 19.622 200437

—-6e24$ -6.204

—-60136 -6.049 -$.938 -$.8609 -$.665

-$.506 -3$.333 -$.147 -4.946 “6.737

-4.312 -4.275 -4.026 -3.764 =-3.49)

-3.206 -2-909 -2.602 -2.283 -1.933

-1-614 -1.26) -0.903 “0.534 “0.154

00156 0.549 0.9$1 1.36) 1.760

2-207 22643 3-087 3-536 3.996

&.465 6.939 5.420 $.9086 62403

6.903 Te41l Te924 0,643 6.968

92499 10.036 10.578 11.6325 13.677

126235 12,797 13.364 13.9396 14.512

15.092 135.677 16e 266 16.859 17.456

16.057 16.662 19.27) 19.063 20,499

-¢.246 -¢.209

—-6.146 -6.059 -5.950 -3.623 -3.600

-$.3922 -5.351 -$.167 -4.969 —4.,756

4.335 -4.299 -4.05) -3.791 -3.519

-3.235 =-2.939 -2.633 “2.315 -1.967

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where t is in °C and V is in milliVolts. The temperature difference measured by the probe, is the output voltage divided by the circuit gain and divided by dV/dt determined at the specific temperature. For a 1° change in air temperature the average change in davV/dt is less than 0.2

microVolts per degree C or less than 0.5% change in aV/dt.

Cons tantan

m “Junction

Come pointed

ut 2

(=) Ground

Figure 10. Schematic of Thermocouple Probe.

The probe consists of two 0.00254 cm diameter Copper- Constantan thermocouples held rigidly 1 meter apart by an aluminum tube. This wire has a resistance of 998.3 ohms per double meter and the circuit requires a low input impedance, therefore it is necessary to cut the fine thermocouple wire short and solder larger wires to them to run the distance between the thermocouples and the circuit input. Copper- Constantan wires 0.0254 cm in diameter were used which have a resistance of 9.983 ohms per double meter. It is essential

to solder the copper to copper and constantan to constantan

to insure no other thermocouple junctions are formed which could cancel any voltage signal generated. The resulting probe

yields an input resistance of 30 ohms.

awe veeSsORine, Wen) SPEED FOR Cu-Constantan THERMOCOUPLE .@@254cm DIAMETER

ul QO

l (Wind Speed (m/sec))} [pas See a a ee ee cee a l 2 3 4 =) ? 280 S) & Sg L ps8 r | < 7 O | 0) 180 - | 2 | C. r — | ~ $ |

G fe is ie eG a é ia Zane ore SORT Of sn Seeee im/~sec) ~l4e

Figure 11. Response Time Versus Wind Speed of a .00254 cm Copper-Constantan Thermocouple.

The reason for the fine wire was to reduce the thermal mass which decreases the response time of the thermocouple to temperature change. The response time is defined as the time

required to reach 63.2% of an instantaneous temperature

change. The OMEGA Handbook [Ref. 20] gives the response time

for a 0.00254 cm thermocouple as 0.05 sec in still air and 0.004 sec in 18.3 m/sec air. The response time 7 can be related to the velocity by the equation,

1 =A+B/V

’ (13)

where A and B are constants for the specific thermocouple material size and are determined by the response times given in Ref. 20 (for this case A=20 and B=53.783 sec’). This results in a response time verses velocity curve shown in Figure 11. From this curve the response time r @ 5 m/sec is .0071 sec. The interaction of the frequency response and the

inner scale size will be discussed in the Results section.

C. COMPUTER AND CODE The data acquisition and processing portion of the system consists of a Hewlett Packard model 217 computer with a 20 megabyte hard drive and 2 megabytes of memory. It also contains an Infotek BC203 Basic compiler, an Infotek AD200 analog to digital converter, an HP9133 floppy disk drive, a monitor and printer. The computer receives data from the circuit via the analog to digital converter. It reduces the data and displays a Cx verses time (altitude) profile. The analog to digital converter is the primary component

for the data acquisition, however it introduces errors. The

A to D converter has a small DC voltage offset. This offset is small so it does not significantly affect the results until ony reaches values on the order of iL) =, as is discussed in the results section. Each A to D converter has a different offset so each time a different computer is used the offset must be measured. In addition the noise of the electronic circuit produces a DC offset. To find the total Dc offset, the entire system was set up and run in the anechoic chamber to insure no external signals are introduced. The software has a feature for inputting the offset and another to display the voltages directly from the probe. To find the offset, initially set the offset to zero and then after the system has run for about one hour, to settle all the air currents generated by the set-up, read the voltages by pressing the PRINT RAW key, this displays the actual voltage offset then simply reboot the system and input the offset read from the raw voltages. The DC offset for the system used for the experiment was -5 millivolts. Appendix A summarizes the features of the software and lists the code for controlling and producing output from the system. It is almost fully automatic. Once it has started running, the only corrections to be made are to update the ambient air temperature any time there is a change of two or three degrees, so the Seebeck coefficient can be recalculated. There is a hard function key for updating the air temperature.

A further refinement to the system would be to have the

rawinsonde temperature measurement device automatically update the program with the new air temperature at a given interval to make the system fully automatic. D. SOLAR HEATING

It is important to understand the effects of thermal radiation on the probes since they will be ascending through the atmosphere both during the day and at night. During the day radiative heating from direct and reflected solar radiation will heat the probes above ambient air temperature while at night the probes will be cooled due to Planck radiation from the probes to space. There are several ways in which the heating or cooling of the probes can introduce errors into a differential measurement device. A hot wire anemometer effect can introduce errors. Another is the difference caused by one probe being in the sun and the other being in the shade or at night where one probe has a direct line of sight to the earth and the other is blocked as by a cloud. In a hot wire anemometer effect the probes are heated above the ambient temperature and then velocity fluctuations across the probes vary the heat transfer rates away from the probes, creating a false temperature difference [Ref. 21]. In the sun-shade effect, as the probe ascends through the

atmosphere one end may come into shade either from a cloud or

the balloon shadow. The probe may rotate as it ascends giving one thermocouple a different aspect to the sun than the other, creating the same sun/shade effect to a lesser extent. In either case one thermocouple will receive less direct solar radiation than the other thereby changing the heat flow on one thermocouple but not the other, again introducing a false difference. The same applies at night if one thermocouple is shaded from the earth by a cloud it will not radiate thermal energy at the same rate as the other will.

The net heat flow to or from a body in the atmosphere is

described by the heat transfer equation,

Cement Ge tT oem, = ac, (14)

where q, = portion of direct solar radiation absorbed q, = portion of the atmospheric radiation absorbed q, = portion of terrestrial radiation absorbed q. = thermal radiation emitted by the wire q, = net conduction to the wire from the atmosphere q. = net convection to the wire from the atmosphere (Ref. 22]. The temperature difference can be determined by first setting q,., equal to 0. The equation can then be reduced

into the heating and cooling portions by,

Eo + Eg + E,, = Ey + E , (15)

ou:

where E,, = heating due to direct solar radiation

E,, = heating due to solar radiative reflection of

‘ the atmosphere

E,- = heating due to long wave radiation from earth E,y = cooling due to long wave radiation from wire E. = convective cooling

[Ref. 23]. If we further assume the thermocouple to be a horizontally oriented, infinite cylinder with the top half radiating to the sky and the bottom half radiating to the earth’s surface, the temperature difference between the

ambient air and the thermocouple is given by,

-_ R, + R, eels ae h

AT = (1)

where h = average convective conductance

€, = short wave emissivity of the thermocouple

€, = long wave emissivity of the thermocouple

a = albedo

R, = short wave incoming radiation

R, = long wave radiation from the earth’s surface R=

- long wave atmospheric radiation

a Stephan-Boltzmann constant

T alr temperature

where h is defined by Kreith [Ref. 22] as,

n _ Kk

where D = wire diameter

h , (17)

. V

wind speed

heat conductivity of the air v = kinematic viscosity of the air

K&n

empirically determined dimensionless constants based on the Reynolds number Geer. 24).

The Air Force Geophysics Laboratory [Ref. 23] defines the calculation for delta T in a similar manner based on the same assumptions. However, when comparing the two forms using the Same parameters (see Figure 12) there is a considerable difference. Review of both treatments shows the principle difference lies in each definition of the convective conductance h. Campbell [Ref. 24] uses Krieth’s form of h (EQN 17) while Brown [Ref. 23] assumes an average value. Another method of determining h is with the Nusselt number, which is a dimensionless number used in describing heat transfer and fluid flows. Kramers (Ref. 25] performed extensive measurements of heat transfer on spheres and cylinders, from this he determined the Nusselt number to be a function of the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number, another dimensionless

number where,

Re = VDp/p , and Pr = Cy /k : (18)

where D = diameter of the cylinder

V = velocity of the fluid

p = density of the fluid

uw = Aynamic viscosity of the fluid k =

thermal conductivity of the fluid c.= specific heat of the fluid. From all the available data he showed that the Nusselt number

for a cylinder could be represented by,

Nu = 0.91(Pr)°*'(Re)° 7? = 0.1<Re<50 , and (@b2) Nu = 0.60(Pr)°*'(Re)?? =, S0<Re<10,000.

Based on the Nusselt number the convective conductance is, h = Nu*k/D. (20)

Campbell included some experimental results in his paper. When the experimental results are compared with Kreith’s and Kramers’ treatment of h we can see that Kramers’ expression exactly models the actual data (Figure 13). Using Equation 20

for h in Equation 16 corrects the differences seen in Figure

12, therefore the lower curve in Figure 12 is the correct

model for solar radiative heating in the atmosphere, based on

the results obtained using the experimental data of Reference

24. SOLAR HEATING OF THERMOCOUPLE i FOR A WIND SPEED OF 3 m/sec _ 44 AFGL FORM _ _ _ CAMPBELL FORM 9 9 / / = 7 VA O / — .6 ee Ts ee c ee a 7.4 ees) Li ie SS .3 | ee cee eo a g B 5 12 15 20 25 30

ALTITUDE (Km)

Figure 12. Comparison of AFGL Model and Campbell’s Model of Solar Heating of Thermocouple Wires.

A discrepancy noted in Campbell’s calculations was the values used for short(visible) and long(IR) wave emissivities. Table 2 gives the emissivities used and the actual emissivities from a 1986 edition of the CRC handbook. The corrected values were used to recalculate the solar heating

and the updated results are shown in Figure 14.

GAZ lel

cm*-e sec*-}]

hn Ecal

COMPARISION OF CAMPBELLS OsaiEGl fh

____ CAMPBELL (KRIETH) ____AFGL(KRAMERS) 5 _ _EXPERIMENTAL 6 4 oe .e l | _ B Y l 2 3 4 5 6 ¢ 8 S 12 VELOCITY (Cm/sJ] Figure 13. Comparison of Convective Conductance. Table 2 EMISSIVITIES OF CU-CONSTANTAN AND TUNGSTEN Visible IR Campbell’s Cu-Constantan 25 PS: CRC Handbook Cu-Constantan we 03 CRC Handbook Tungsten 25 03

SOLAR HEATING OF THERMOCOUPLE

FOR A WIND SPEED OF 3 m/sec

_4 4 AFGL FORM _ _ _ CAMPBELL FORM 3 .8 ee, OO ~ .6 e .5 . ef . 4 LiJ 7 a) .3 ZL oa ee alll. ESE ae . > |S anaemia ais Q Q 5 12 15 20 25 32

fal le eee) eh my)

Figure 14. Corrected Comparison of solar heating.

Based on Figure 14 it is now possible to make a determination of the errors introduced by solar heating. The structure function for velocity fluctuations over small scale

lengths is,

S D(r) = 3.83(er) , (al)

where « is the dissipation rate [Ref. 26]. Actual data shown in Reference 26 from areas of highly turbulent velocity fields

indicates the average dissipation rate is on the order of

2 3

3x10°° m* sec’. For the probe system with r equal to 1 meter

this yields velocity fluctuations on the order of 0.06 m/sec. Figure 15 shows the solar heating errors due to the hot wire anemometer effect with velocity fluctuations of this magnitude. Figure 16 shows the differences between the curves of Figure 15. It indicates the temperature differences are negligible (on the order of .001 degrees or less).

The shading effect can be determined by eliminating the direct solar radiation component in the equation. This will show the maximum error, if it is a matter of the probe changing aspects to the sun the errors will be proportionally less. If direct solar radiation is completely removed there will be very slight heating of the probe, due to incoming terrestrial radiation. The temperature difference between the two probes will be approximately equal to the amount of solar heating on one probe as seen in Figure 14. This indicates a major source of error since the temperature difference at higher altitudes is on the order of 0.2 °C and the balloon can rotate as it ascends.

Based on these calculations if some method is devised to limit the rotation of the probe to eliminate the sun/shade effect, the probe system can measure co values accurately up to 30 km altitude without significant errors.

Reference 7 described a Ge thermosonde used by the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory. Data measured by this system

indicates an order of magnitude jump in the values of Ce

SOLAR HEATING OF THERMOCOUPLE

5 FOR A MEAN WIND SPEED OF 3 m/sec ; MEAN VELOCITY _ ,+7- .86 m/sec FLUCTUATION .4 OU a. 2 b- c wc Li 2 ao g % Ss 1g ies 2U a) 308 A ere SC Figure 15. Hot Wire Anemometer Effect on Copper Constantan Thermocouples. Diaper eNCe SEINWBEN ine CURVES OF FIGURE 15 4) alge) . 822 O aad 1S _ c .aa1 LJ A Q@@85

QB go eS

4) 2 12 LS (a eo 3@

ACTETODE» Chm

Figure 16. Differences Between the Curves of Figure ito

Shh,

just after sunrise [Ref. 27]. This increase appears to be an artifact of the instrument rather than actual turbulent processes due to the fact it occurs so rapidly. Since it occurs at sunrise a logical assumption is that it is due to solar heating, therefore a great deal of time has been spent in determining these effects. Figure 17 shows the hot wire anemometer effect on a 4 micron tungsten resistance wire. The values for the emissivity of Tungsten are taken from Table 2. This indicates solar heating does not effect the measurements of oy consequently the rise in the value of Cidaeat sunrise may

be actual.

SOLAR HEATING OF 4 MICRON TUNGSTEN WIRE

FOR A MEAN WIND SPEED OF 3 m/sec

3 MEAN VELOCITY _ #/- «686 m/sec FLUCTUATION 4 O ~ (3 t- Ge woe 2 LJ | mi g Q 5 12 15 22 25 30

ALTITUDE (Km)

Figure 17. Hot Wire Anemometer Effect on 4 micron Tungsten Wire.

IV. RESULTS

A. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The experimental measurements served two purposes, first they were carried out to validate the probe measurement system and second, they were used to validate the c,* measurement capabilities of the acoustic echosounder[Refs. 6,28]. The acoustic echosounder calculates a 15 minute time averaged value for the temperature structure parameter as a function of altitude, however uncertainties in the antenna beam shape, Side lobes, transducer efficiencies and atmospheric attenuation produce uncertainties in the absolute value of ce calculated by the echosounder [Ref. 28]. Therefore independent verification of the ol values must be made to validate the acoustic echosounder. If both values agree this is a positive indication that both systems are measuring accurately.

The acoustic echosounder is a high frequency device which analyzes the atmospheric density fluctuations within the first 200 meters of the atmosphere. The echosounder consists of a Hewlett Packard HP 217 computer to control the system and acquire and reduce the data, an HP 3314A function generator which produces the pulsed signals, an amplifier and the array of speakers which acts as a transmitter/receiver. The system

operates at 5KHz and produces a 100 cycle sinusoidal burst of

18 acoustic watts. The antenna array consists of 19 piezoelectric speakers in a close-packed hexagonal array enclosed in a 55 gallon plastic trash container lined with lead and foam to reduce side lobes as much as possible. The minimum range of the device is approximately six meters based on the recovery or "ring" time of the speakers and the maximum range is about 200 meters based on the frequency used. Figure 18 is a diagram of the acoustic echosounder layout.

A comparison test was run with the probe system and the echosounder between 1300 and 2030 hours local time on 3 September 1988 on the roof of Spanagel Hall on the grounds of the Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey CA. The acoustic echosounder was placed on the sixth level, northwest corner of the roof while the probe was attached to a rigid pole and extended approximately 1.5 meters off the seventh level of the northwest corner of the roof. In this position the probe was approximately 9.2 meters above the echosounder array, thereby being outside of the echosounder blind zone. Due to the building itself and heating exhaust vents on the eastern side of the building it was necessary to monitor the wind direction to insure the prevailing winds were not passing over the building and picking up heat from the exhausts, which would have greatly affected the data. Therefore wind speed and direction as well as temperature and humidity measurements

were taken every 15 minutes to update temperature and humidity

PCH. |

HP3314A OSC POWER Ag AMPLIFIER GENERATOR CH. ! HARD WIRE TO BACK) — INITIAL PULSE

<— SIGNAL TO ARRAY

WAVETEK FALTER

) 753A

INPUT OUTPUT

RETURN SIGNAL (TO COMPUTER)

FOR FILTER, USE INPUT GAIN 1 AND OUTPUT GAIN 10.

Figure 18. Layout of Acoustic Echosounder Device.{Ref. 28]

information for the two systems as well as determining if the prevailing winds were flowing across the building before passing over the instruments, corrupting the data. During the entire experiment the wind shifted several times but it was always from Northwest to Southwest. At all times the air flow passed over the instruments before passing over the building. All the data was valid.

Figures 19 through 21 represent a portion of the data collected during this experiment. In each of the figures the upper graph is the echosounder profile of the atmosphere, the central graph is a 15 minute time averaged Ce profile of the atmosphere based on the data collected by the acoustic echosounder and the bottom graph is the Ce versus time plot measured by the probe system at an altitude of 9.2 meters above the echosounder. The dark lines below about 6 meters in the upper plot and the discontinuities below 6 meters in the center plot are due to the blind zone of the echosounder. To compare the plots, the average of the bottom plot was compared with the value at an altitude of 9.2 meters in the center plot. Figure 19 was taken early in the afternoon and shows strong convective pluming, which causes a higher temperature structure parameter. Figure 20 which was taken closer to the neutral event shows a marked decrease in the turbulence and

a corresponding decrease in the values for Cun Figure 21

3 Sep 1368 NPS 130) Sop Leu ag eur mmest toe Fieri St are EI URRY els ra © «Lee wae a th gee Nits Sei oe fer ™ Bc af ae in ae 5 t's ered eR ce a ae eer et da ee | oe oe Hy 3 ceed eS we So F . 100 iy: a pet ae +e 5 agh Ele ; dy 88 wo Sent Fo Ae BRL 2 tas 4+ oe oA oa < Ty pea a fui 3 3 = Ax WW Be} | < 2 iy rey S 30 Ral =A E +p Gy i a x at p ane a fea A. Be atest Fe ct Vee AHL TR AE vies re ak ge iwetl at Bes ame y | - Rica ih adbeast. lll Ti titi t's leaps Cig sian a aac anit — glipthecle (tittc o 14:30 14:35 14:4@ 14:45 TIME (LOCAL) TINE AVERAGED CT~2 150 5 100 < pa 2) O 3.@-4 1.a—a (.@€-2 1.@-1 1s LOG OF CT-~2 3 Sep 1988 NPS i@? 18° Ay) « U

. ul anal Ht

1a~

1a-6 14:30 14:35 14:48 14:45

Time

Figure 19. Echosounder Trace and es Measurement and Probe Measurement During Strong Turbulence.

3 Sep 1388 NPS

150

SO orik aR HS et he fa tg ya a aba. : as 1 The W ui p 100 Fe c Se 1s a *s g Se a let na re Te 17:28 |?: 25 17:32 TIME SV ECCRE > TINE AVERAGED CT-2 1S@ 160 58 (.0f-2 3.am-4 |. 4-8-2 1.-1 1a 6 LOG OF CT~e2 3 Sep 13986 NPS 1a’ 10° oy Cli s | ia-° f MA { i 1a-° iia: Lem

be tS 17:20 17:25 17:30

Ttme

Figure 20. Echosounder Trace and og Measurement and Probe Measurement During Light Turbulence.

3 Sep 138 NPS

150 Sy nae Ma Nat Mac Stach

. Fo 0 oath

tie or Ll ar L ar |

Sac a qo

WW wi ~ 10@ im) i > 350 c va 8 vee “te erpeune ‘ ale SS ee ee 7) 7 = - . on 7 20:80 20:05 26:18 20:15 PINE <COCAe) TINE AVERAGED cT2 15@ 108 3a s) (.3€-3 1.ag— (.a-3 (.am2 5.M§-1 toe LOG OF CT~2 3 Sep 1988 NPS oF _ S)

Figure 21. Echosounder Trace and C,° Measurement and Probe Measurement During No Turbulence.

taken during the neutral event, shows virtually no turbulence and a much lower value for Cor Appendix D contains additional measurements taken during this experiment to show the corresponding increases and decreases in eS for both the echosounder and the probe system. The purpose of these measurements was not to actually sample the atmospheric processes at this location but to make a quantitative comparison test between the acoustic echosounder and the probe system. For a complete description of the atmospheric turbulence measurements and processes for this location see

Weingartner [Ref. 6].

B. SCALE SIZE ERRORS

The temperature variations ina turbulent atmosphere range in size from millimeters to hundreds of meters. Optical aberrations are primarily caused by variations the size of a

Fresnel zone ODIs

therefore with laser frequencies and path lengths of several kilometers the important scale sizes are on the order of several centimeters. [Ref. 13] With a frequency response of 150 Hz and an average wind speed of 2-5 m/sec, the system is limited to scale sizes greater than 3 cm, which will introduce a small amount of "inner scale" error, since minimum

scale sizes are on the order of millimeters, but if used for

measurements in conjunction with laser propagation through the

atmosphere the error will be negligible. Additionally, the acoustic echosounder utilizes the smaller scale sizes of approximately 3 cm, thus there will be negligible error introduced by this in a comparison test.

To find the outer scale length errors we can express the structure function of the probe system with limiting scale lengths by, sin?(kt/2)k7°! 2 D(a,b) = 4 eS (22)

l+(wr,)* lt(wry)* where a is the limiting lower frequency (outer scale)

b is the limiting upper frequency (inner scale)

~ il

21/X’ where » is the actual scale length

w = kV where V is the wind velocity

RC time constant of the high pass filter (the upper frequency cutoff)

T 4

frequency response of the probes (the lower frequency cutoff)

r = probe separation distance ands comparing it with the structure function over all scale

lengths,

D(0,0) = i) in| kr ye dk , (23) 2 0

the outer scale length limiting error can be determined.

Figure 22 is a graphical representation of this comparison,

showing the error over a range of limiting outer scale lengths. The 8% limiting error on the low end of Figure 22 is due to the high frequency cutoff of the circuit and as the scale size decreases the larger low frequency errors of the circuit begin to dominate, increasing the error. The limiting scale length for the experiment can be determined as the height above ground, which was approximately 30 meters. From Figure 22 it is clear the error introduced due to finite outer scale lengths is approximately 12%. The design of the acoustic echosounder is resistent to outer scale errors therefore the finite inner and outer scale error introduced would cause the probe system to record measurements approximately 12% lower

than the echosounder.

‘e m8)

a) oo W

A 1 E> e8 ‘ — 1 faa . =o le ee fae ogee e eeanaee ou . - Be tees pore. oe ee gs ee kt as Pee ees oho ee treet mM 2

CFS By Ue = nd Re Os

a) x

(yn

MINTMUM FREQUENCY (APFROY OLITER SCALE SIZE

Figure 22. % Error Induced by a Limiting Outer Scale Length

The acoustic echosounder is susceptible to inner scale errors which will cause it to read higher than the probe system. The inner scale length is inversely proportional to

the wind speed and can be expressed as,

= 7h (em) (24) Ochs and Hill [Ref. 29] made extensive measurements of the inner scale length, based on their results and the mean wind speed of 6 m/sec during the measurements, the approximate inner scale length was 3 mm. At the edge of the inner scale of turbulence there is a bump in the temperature spectrum due to diffusion as it enters the viscous-convective range. Figure 23 illustrates this bump showing the spatial power spectrum ®, of temperature fluctuations versus the scaled wave number xn, Which is the wave number normalized by the inner scale length.[Ref. 30] Here x is equal to 2x/Scale Length and 7 is equal to 1,/7.14 (for air). The limiting inner scale size of the echosounder is 3.4 cm (A/2 where A=(340m/sec) + (5KHz) ) therefore with an inner scale size of 3mm the scaled wave number is approximately 9x10°. Figure 23 shows the acoustic echosounder will read approximately 5% higher than the Kolomogorov spectrum and therefore 5% higher than the probe

system.

Figure 23. Spatial power spectrum ¢, of temperature fluctuations versus scaled wave number «n. Solid curve is actual model; the dashed curve is Tatarski’s model. [Ref. 30]

C. ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 24 is a comparison of 15 minute time averaged data collected from the echosounder and the probe system. This data was taken before the noise measurements and discovery of the 5 millivolt DC offset error in the A to D converter RMS module combination. Figure 25 shows the corrected data comparing the two systems. The data clearly shows the correlation of the two systems even with the volatile trends of the turbulent fluctuations. It also shows a decrease in the temperature structure parameter leading up to and during the neutral

event, which corresponds with the actual physical processes

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Echosounder and Temperature Probe Before for DC Offset

Comparison of Data From Acoustic Correction

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Figure 25.

TABLE 3

C,° MEASUREMENTS ; (CORRECTED FOR DC OFFSET)

TIME (LOCAL ECHOSOUNDER PROBE % DIFFERENCE 1400 .0354184 .0368390 3 1415 . 0316086 .0391012 23 1430 0358514 .0335893 6 1445 . 0500970 0492531 2 1500 .0322137 .0321643 0 1515 .0490100 .0432243 12 1530 0474621 .0384319 20 1645 .0311984 .0271304 Ls 1700 . 0263566 .0350252 32 1715 .0361568 .0292298 20 1730 .0260007 . 0232678 10 1745 .0217524 .0274032 25 1800 . 0233976 0200511 14 1815 .0141386 .0165680 17 1830 .0138539 .0165680 18 1845 . 0132466 .0184468 39 1900 .0129296 0145711 15 2000 R00 S4y0u 0077345 40 2015 .0058262 .0071837 Be

AVERAGE % DIFFERENCE 17

going on at the time. With the approach of sunset, at 1933 local time, the sun heated the earth’s surface to a lesser degree thereby reducing the temperature difference between the earth’s surface and the air, which in turn reduced the

temperature structure parameter and the turbulence.

Table 3 contains the values of c,* measured by each of the devices and corrected for the offset, it indicates an average difference of 17%, with the probe system reading lower. The scale length errors indicate the probe should read approximately 12% lower due to outer scale length errors and 5% lower due to inner scale bump errors. Therefore there is no significant difference between the probe system readings

and the echosounder calculations.

V. CONCLUSIONS

Independent verification of ex values measured by the acoustic echosounder is important [{Ref. 28] and _ the differential temperature structure parameter probe has provided a valuable comparison indicating the absolute e- values of both the echosounder and the probe are valid. Taking into account all known errors there is no_ significant difference between readings of the echosounder and the probe system, which is an extremely good indication that both systems are providing valid measurements. Additionally this thesis demonstrated that solar heating of the probes in the atmosphere does not appear to play as significant a role as first thought. The only major effect solar heating has on the differential system is when one probe is directly illuminated by solar radiation while the other is shaded.

This probe system has many applications including being placed on towers to calibrate other turbulence measuring devices as well as being attached to a rawinsonde system and launched to measure the vertical profile of lies When used in this mode it can measure values of ons up to 30 km altitude accurately, however if it rotates as it ascends through the

atmosphere the sun/shade effect of solar heating will

adversely affect the system. Further developments to the package, such as addition of wind vanes on the probe assembly which will not affect the turbulent flow but will dampen the rotation, or a small motor with a flywheel to act as a gyroscopic stabilizer to prevent the probe from rotating, will eliminate the errors induced by this effect.

Other improvements to the system include methods to automatically update the temperature into the program from the balloon systems onboard temperature sensor. Another improvement would be to increase the data transmission rate of the rawinsonde telemetry system to get a higher resolution profile of the thin stratified layers of the turbulent atmosphere or even possibly having the system transmit an AC signal from which a great deal more information can be extracted such as the power spectral density of the

turbulence.

ek)

APPENDIX A

PROBE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

The program that runs the system is called "CTSQR". It controls the probe system, collects the data, reduces it, and then displays and stores it for further analysis. It is based on the same program that controls the acoustic echosounder. It can be broken down into several sections. The first section sets up the system, initializes all arrays, creates a data file which can store up to eight hours of data and sets up the function keys which are used to update the temperature used in calculating the Seebeck Coefficient, prints out raw voltage data or ends the program storing what has been collected. The next section initializes the Infotek AD200 analog-to-digital converter, which collects the data. Now that the system is ready to collect data it calculates the Seebeck Coefficient based on the information input at start-up or updated through the function key. Next it collects data every second and averages it over ten seconds, reduces it to oe and plots it every ten seconds. Every 15 minutes it prints out the plot and then resumes the data collection. The program "CTREADER" can take the data file generated by "CTSQR" and read it and

calculate 15 minute time averaged values of eo

aS,

12 2@ 29 4? ce 69 7@ pe 90 100 112 12@ 129 142 152 164 172 180 lee 29@ 210 270 230 240 750 262 270 2e@ 299 29 719 2 230 24@ 250 75 270 2a 299 ADO A19 AZ AtQ 440 AGO ABO AT Ape ane SAO S10 S20 S29 SA@ Soa She S70 Spe 59a 69@ 510 620 520 BA 650 652 679 BPA 69¢ 700 710 720 72@ 740

RE-STORE “CTSQORZ:,78@2,1,0° CTSOR: 1S SEP 1988: MRD This pregrars ccllacts ona data channal from a HP 34214 or AD convarter. and stores aight hours of tha binary data on a diac file

PTION BASE | Initialize the erreys DIM Des8(16),0isc_address$(20) ,Filel$( 30) INTEGER 1,J3,34,¥ ,Kstart ,Kand,N,Nrec,Hr,02(2880,4),Plotnum,Print_kay ! 02 = The reduced date output arrey (28688, 4) t = (Dey,Hr, VOLTS_AV6, CT) SNPUT “ENTER AIR TEMP (DEGREES C)°,T

Set constants

Cisc_address$=°":,720,8,6" ! HPIB eddrass of disc Ee in=S2@ae? 1 Amplifier gein } }

Maxrec=2029 ® records in output file Nolet #909 & points plottad Plotnum=@

Print_key=] ! print raw deta if >@

Rj] .@ ! Probe seperation (m) Scele1@@ee ' Dise storage scela fector

' The Equetion For The Seebeck Coefficient See=2,Q7A7F-24+28 . S34BE-S*T-3.3125E-721°2 Pech=-2,77422E-9*T*3-1.2S53E-119T"4 Seebeck=(SeetPeck }*#1.E-3

PRINT Seebeck

P_ena_thirdeR*(1./3.)

{

ISCET TIMEQATE

INPUT “DD YOU WANT TO RESET THE CLOCK (Y DR N)7",DS IF OF="Y° THEN INPUT "ENTER °°DD MMM YYYY°" (Locel Time)* ,Deted INPUT “ENTER ""HR:MIN:SC°” (Local Time)",Time$ CET TIMEDATE DATE(DeteS )+TIME( Times) PRINT DATES( TIMEDATE ), TIMES( TIMEDATE ) Tstart=TIMEDATE T@=Tstert MCD 26408 FHO IF IMPUT INPUT SITE NAME" Sites IPT “ENTER THE A-O CONVERTER OFFSET(-.@05 FOR HP 217)°,Zero INWPUT “ENTER THE LOWEST DECADE FOR THE PLOT (NORMAL USE -S)°,Ymin

Create_fitle: t

Set un the cata reduction output file INPUT "ENTER REQUCED OATA OUTPUT FILE NAME’ Filel$¢ Filel$=Filel#&0isc_eddress$¢

INPUT “1ST ENTRY IN REQUCED DUTPUT FILE? (YES DR ND)" ,D$

IF D¥="NO° THEN GOTD Didfila

Heufile: CREATE ODAT Filel$,1,23040 ' 2 BYTES x FILE SIZE B HDURS OF DATA

ASSIEN OF ilel TD Filels Nrec=@ ‘8 OF ENTRIES IN THE DUTPUT FILE GOTO Setup

Oldfile: ASSIGN @Filel TO Filel$

ENTER @Fiiel:D2¢¢) ASSIEN OF ileal TO Fileld 160 TO START OF FILE NreeceO2(1,1) § THE OLD & OF ENTRIES IN THE DUTPUT FILE

Setup: ' Set up the deta reduction and plot formet OUTPUT VEO; "SCRATCH KEYE®: $ Cleer keys CONTROL 2,2;:1 ’ § Select user menu |

( t l

ON KEY 1 LABEL “PRINT RAW" 60DTD Print_rew

OM KEY B LAPEL "Quit* GDTD Quit DON KEY 2 LAREL “UPDATE TEMP* 6NTD Uprdata_temp

HpcinteTIMEDATE MOD 86420 MOD 360@ DIV IS

CALL Plotsetup(Nplot,Sites,Yrin)

CALL Init_ed22 | Initielize A-D DUTPUT VED: “L*; ! Turn on oraphics

Begin the mein deta acquisition loop

WHILE Mrec’=Mexrec 75@ Stert_io |

76@ 778 788 798 gee B19 829 830 8408 B58 f62 B72 882 B38 920 918 920 93% 948 352 96e 972 9e@ 2998 1@a@e 1@18 1@2@ 1220 1048 1@S@ 126 1@7@ 1@ee@ 1@9¢ 11@® 111@ 112@ Lise 114@ 11S@ 116@ 117@ 11e@ 119@ 12@0 121@ 122@ 220 1248 2S 1Z5e 127A 12e@ 1z75¢ 13ae 1272 13ce 124@ {i5¢ 1760 137¢@ 1XPA 1399 140e 141@ 142@ 1470 144@ 1459

Voltsqe® Store_detes®

FOR I-11 TO 10

Sync: ! Synchronize dete collection with the syetem clock

TISINT(TIMEDATE MOD 86480) IF TI<T® THEN TO*+TO-B6400 1F (TI-~TO)<1 THEN 6D0TD Sync TO-T]

Reed_ad: |}

CALL Adin(Voltege, Zero) 1 Reed Infotek A-D IF Print_key>®@ THEN PRINT USING °1800.0000°;Voltege 6010 Reed_ad END IF VoltsqeVoltsqtVolteaege*Vol tage ! Average volteage*2 NpointeINI(T1 MOD 3688 MOD Nplot) IF Npoint<Npolnt_old THEN Store_dete=s! IF Npoint_old>® AND Store_dete*® THEN | Plet the dete Ctsor=(Volteoge/(GeinsSeaboeck*R_one_third))*2' LoctsaqreL6T(Ctsar) t MOVE Npoint_old,Voits_old ' DRAW Npoint ,Vol tage 1 Plot Volteoe MOVE Npoint_old,Locteqr_old QRAW Npoint ,Loctegr ENC IF Volts_old=Voltege Loctsqr_oldeLoctsar Npoint_old=Npoint IF Store_dete=i THEN Npoint_old=8 NEXT 1 Volts_avoeSOR(Voltsg/1@) CteVolts_evo/(Gein*Seabeck*R_cne_third) picp °° TIeTIMEDATE DeyfeDATES(T! ) TimeS=TIMES( TI)

ees CT SQUARED CATA REDUCTION SECTION ee

Yr@=Dayfi@,11) Dey=((DATE(Dey$)-QATE(°! JAN “8Yr8)) DIV 86400)+41

Nrec«Nrectl

( CALCULATE DECIMAL HDURS T&->Time$ Hour e=VALCTE( 1,2) #(VAL(TS(4,S) 4VAL(1$17,8))/60)/690 Hr=1]@@@*Heours !' Nete thet the HP rounds

PRINT *Pacord &°;:Nrec:” Collected “:Dey8:° “:Times

PRINT * °

ALPHA OFF

t SET UP DUTPUT ARRAY

HieNrect+i SFOR OPTION BASE 1

O241,1)<Nrec

C261, J =Day

D2CNL, 2 Jer

D2(N1,3)=*Volts_avo*Scele

N2ON1,4)=CteScele { Intensity

PRINT NI;D2(N1,3);Q2(N1,2);02(0N1,3);02(N1,4)

Stcere_data: ( Write output every NPLOT seconds

IF Stcre_detae!l THEN Stere_dete=9 PRINT MIiCP “WRITING REQUCED OUTPUT” OUTPUT @Filel, O2(¢) ASSIEN @File!l TO Filels PletnumePlofnum+] IF Pictnum MQD 2°11 THEN PRINTER 1S 701 PPINT °

146 1470 14e@ 1498 1Sae@ 151@ 1$20 138 1S48 1552 1568 1$7@ 15e@ 1598 16@@ 1612 162@ 162@ 164? 1ES@ 1668 167@ 16ea 169@ 17@@ $71 172@ 172@ 174@ 175@ I7E@ 177@ 1722 179¢ 1E°8 1210 1€2@ 1e22 1P4@ 1eS@ 1e6@ 1270 ree? feoG 190@ Paige 192@ 1922 194@ 12s? Ieee 1970 1°80 Nissi 20?e 2012 202A ZEA 2040 2eC? 2ABO 2270 Z2OPO 2292 2102 2112 2120 Zio? 2142 21S@ Z1EC 217 2128 213° 2278 2210

Ca Jip hs | Leet

PRINTER IS } ENC IF DUMP GRAPHICS #701 1 Dump screen to printer Npcint=@ Qisp * ° CALL Plotsetup(Nplot ,Sita%)

END IF

End_whila: ENO WHILE

Update_tenp: ' Updates Seeback Coefficient With Naw Air Temp

INPUT “ENTER NEW AIR TEMPERATURE(DEGREES C)°,T See=3.8707E-2+8.S34CE-SeT-3, 31 35E-7#T*2 Pecke-2.77432E-99T* 3-1] .253E-L1eT*4 Seabech=(SeatBeck )*].E-3

ECTO Start_io

Print raw: !' TOGELE THE PRINT FLAG

Print_key#-Print_key ECTO Start_io Quit: FOR Je! TO NI PRINT 3:02¢7,3):0207,29:02¢1,3):02¢1,4):0201,5);02¢1,6) NEYT J QUIPUT OF ilel;O2¢¢) PRINT “DATA FILE HAS @EEN STOREO UNDER NAME’ ,Filals PEEP PEEP ASSIGN OF ilal TO « cTOP END SUe Plotsetup(Nplot,Site$,Ymin) Ymaxe] GINIT 6BRAPHICS ON LINE TYPE } NIEWPORT 15,1280,15,8@ WINDOW @,Nplot,Y¥min, Ymax AYES 62@,.5.0,Ymin,S,2 CLIP OFF CSIZE 4,.6 LOPE 6 Draw Logo Y Axis FOP CecadesYmin TO Ymax

1 Write reduced data output fila

FOR tinitse! TO 14+8*(Dacade<Ymax ) YeDecade+LGT(ttnits)

MOVE @,Y

DRAW Nplot,yY

NEXT Units

NE¥T Decade Label! herizonta!l axis TI=TIMEDATE MCD 864900

Hrs=Ti DIV 2620

T2=T1 MOO 3622

Min=T2 DIV 60 Qtrhr=Min DIV IS

FOR M=<@ TO Nplot STEP 308

MOVE M,Ymin-. @6 QtrmineQtrhre154(h/388)¢S

IF Otrmin=68 THEN

Qtrmin=B

Hrs=Hre+] ENC IF LAPEL USING °00,A,ZZ°;:Hrs;°:°;Qtrnmin

NE¥T M MOVE Npolot/2,Y¥min-.8 LABEL “Tima (Local )°

' Label Ordinate

LORE @ FOR MeYmin TO Ymax

LOPE 8

Clize «

MOVE -Nplot/23.3,M LASEL USING °8,K°;°10° CEIZE 2

LORE 1

MOVE -Nplet/22@,M LABEL USING “8,4%°°M

NE¥T M

Zee 2098 254@ 2112 212@ Zi38 2148 2158 21628 2172 2128@ 2192 2226 2212 2228 2230 2248 225@ 2268 227@ 2282 2292 2300 2210 222@ 2520 234@ 2350 2268 2278 2280 Deon 2482 241@ 242@ 2430 244A 2452 246@ 24790 2420 2492 2500 2510 2520 252@ 254@ 25S@ 25h@ 257@ 252@ 2520 268@ 7610 2620 2530 2548 26S@ 2668 267@ 26e@ 269@ 2722 2718 2728

fey MOVE Nplot/2,Ymin-.0 LACEL “Tima (Local )”

|} Label Ordinata

LORG 6 FOR MeYrin TO Yrax LORE 8B CSIZE 4 MOWE -Nplot/23.3,% LABEL USING °8,K*:;°10° CSiZE 2 LORS } MOVE -NpJct/28, LABEL USING °8,K°:M NEXT LOIR P1/2 LORG § CSIZE 4 MOVE -Nplot/7,(Y¥mint+Yrax)/2 LABEL “LOG OF CT*2°

(Title the plot

LOIR @

LORG 4

MOVE Mpict/2,Y¥maxt+!

LABEL OATES( TIMEDATE ): ° ";Sites Ci.IP ON

CUBEND

CUB Adin(Voeltage,Zero)

1 26 APR 1986: OLW t INFOTEK A-O Input reutina set up for intarnal triggar t and average 42 points ovar three 60 Hz cycles t INTEGER 1,Npointa,Ad_data( 1:48) O1IM Select#(2@) Ad_sel_ccde*i7 Intensity=@ Npeints=40 Count #*VALE(Npoints ) Ccale*S.@/(Npoints*#2047, ) Ctdev=@ Delta_t ime$="1250000° 1 AO interval betwaan samples in naac Celect#="aelact Isi end° GOSUE Read_ad FOR 1-1 TO Npoints Voltage=Voltage+Ad_data(!) NEXT | Voltape=(VYoltage-Zero)*Scala EQTO Subend

Read_ad: ' Read the Infotak A-0

' Initialize the A-0 OUTPUT Ad_sal_coda; “PESET®,“internal*, “count” ,Count$ OUTPUT Ad_ael_code:°time® Oalta_tine$,°dalayon®,Salact$ CUTPUT Ad_sel_code: “STATUS* ENTER Ad_sel_code:Resp$ IF Resp%e°-------- ° THEN

ENTER Ad_sel_code USING °8,W°;:Ad_data(#)

OUTPUT Ad_asal_code: “STATUS®

ENTER Ad_sal_code:Resp$

IF Resp§<)°-------- ° THEN PRINT “ERROR OURING SAMPLING = °:Resp$ ENO IF ELCE

PRINT “ERROR OURING A-O INITIALIZATION = °;Rasps ENO IF RETURN

6) 5:

2738 Subend: '

2740 SUBENO

2750 SUB Initt_ad2@e

2768 VINITIALIZE AD_200 2778 Code#17

2788 Oummy=REAOIO( Code, 3) 2798 WRITEIO Code,@:@ 2880 CONTROL Code,@:I1

2818 SU8ENO

tw tf o- C2 10 CO -) OID wm be Foe 10 (0 -) ON m tw fi e-= CAO OO BOA A OQ @G Qe

we OO Ro ie oa 2 ae peo a 2 Oa oe

God Gob Od 0 82 FD PD DD 0 BS PD FD re he oe te pe oe be be oe oe 1 (CO -9 CE om bd fe=

342

APPENDIX B SOLAR HEATING PROGRAM

oA RE=STORE AU TPUCT.: (WOR y. .e-

Peace) 1992

' THIS PQOSRS™ SLOTS THE CHANEE ry THE HEL Ta T ‘Tomocgarigee Oreceocaire ' BETYEEN THE THESMOCOUSLE Oo THE aFQ TEMS OVE Ta ¢91 49 MEAT I NG) TUS NCeeSee TNEAET TT UCE Seceo ON SeOe Ss Sel CurarrTous (8) SFeL oe

1 OATED 27 FEB 1984 AND CAaMPSe! L's woRy FROM OCT :969

L THE FOLLOWINGS IS THE LIST OF Vaqrap_es

J=4.19 ' mechanics! equivalent sf hest {4 Cel*-1 Ses)

c=. 16 t Solor Ssmatans (Wo em*-2)

Es54+=.2S Devi Sth le Were. enesh telat Sea Se Ce CUrLe Esaage.Ze ' Skset Wave Enrssivity for CAMPSEL!'S Csleculst:isas Fa-=Pl reese © Sster (se ghee Rsdiesticon

Fre? ' Ferm Fastsr fer Reflested Radistisn

Esslue=.5 ' Long Wave EMISSIVITY ef the THERMCOCUPLE

Esale.S Pismo Wave Emissivity °sr SCAMSSELE’S Celculstisns Pae.222 DeSise. wave iGm@ecndang RSdisiten ‘cst en —-2 5ses-!)

As=. 82a ft Long Wave Atmospherte Radistion (Cal sm*-2 gee°-!) 85-. 8 ( Long Wave Redtastisn from Srsund (Cal em*-2 see°-!)

Ai bese=. ss | Reflectitsn of the SCorth

SrgmesS.S7TE-12 ! Stefsn-Boltemann Constan$ (Ww em*-2 K*-4)

Sigeslel. TSSSSE-12 + Stefsn=Bsltemann Conatant {Cal em*-2 Kod}

Om=. 82290254 b Prebe Diameter in meters

Dem. 2254 | Pesbe Otameter in centimeters

Comearte4. $O@Q2E42 | Conversion Factor fsr Thermal Conductivity Bets=l1.459F-S | Conatant for Determining Mu (kg*-!) m*-l K*-1/2) Suth=110.4 } Sutherlend’s Constant fsr Mu (KX)

Pr=l,71s | Dimensionless Srandt! Nusmber fer Sir ‘Re = Dimensisnisss Reynolds Number for sir

"Ned = Oimensioniess Muasselt Number for 4:r Ey = Aie Tempersture (‘Kelwving}

tRew = Ate Denmatty sa Fumetten of Altitude (khg/m*Z>

[Mu = Dynamic Viscsatty of Atr (M-sec/m 2)

'Nu = Kinemstic Viascsatty of Air (m*2/s3ec¢ }

Vy = Therms! Conductivity (Cal see*-] em*-2 (C/em}* =]

Hy = Convective Heat Tranafer Coefficient £4 ALT) }

1 (Cak em*n-2 see*-] K*-1]}

iF = Percentsge of Soler RAReditation Resching Stren Alittude iSe Hest Flux from Earth st Siven Altitude (Ww om*-2)

tAlt « The Given Altitude (Km)

UU) = Wind Speed (m/sec)

‘Ke = Emptricsl conatent bssed cn Reynolds Number from Krieth [os = Empirics! comatant Sssed sm Reynelds Numser frem kriteth Delt= Tempersture Otfference betwsen FO srd Aim fer SCO !Deltic= Tempersture Difference between TC and Sir fer CAmMOSe!

b b

Both tn Degrees C

INPUT “WHAT WIND SPEED CO YOU WANT’, PLOT SE. UP

IMPUT °INPUT 1 FCR PLOTTER OR 2 FOR CRT°,S

IF Q=1 THEN OLOTTER IS 787, “HPSL*

BS SURE PLOTTER CIP SWITCHES ARE PROPERLY SET te. SWITCH 1,2,2 IN POSIT 1 IF Q=2 THEN PLOTTER IS CRT, “INTERNAL®

SIMIT

GRAPHICS CN

LINE TYPS !

MEEWECRT 15,120, 15,98

-j cn

JI3uHTOnnnoamMmoaoa min Mm onitn aIOacoa VQ OO GC oe C@ cD OD cd Ca

cn iN dm OF Fd r= 63 60 CO -J CM IN m@ GC Po oo 63D 49 CO

-J - “3 o-d -y -d Oo ada QO wp a ~ o> ¢

- = o= - (9 10 (0 (0 oO WO CO co CO co (O CO CO co CO CO Co CO CO CO -J INO Bw wo -Y OQ iN *& OF PI e- OM co CO HI OO OO om Cy fd oe- ¢€3 10 (0

Nfer NV OO BD YMA DAI’ A YY O VD OO Ya GD WD OO @ &

WINcoOv @,22,2,1 BNES ©. cco, ceen ome

AXIS

spe as Cc

at ad ron

J £ - 3 7m

Dena “Kf EF DO Oy CO «

np O-A io

mw £8 ON Nn 7 -x

A ’ E 1S,-.! EL “ALTITUDE (Km)* a9

EL VERTICAL AXIS

Ni <i: Oo

o wt MeO TC Peeters. Cc _<

“F —_

->Oau:m Dew -4 OH c=

mMOMeamnn ay Oeame t= a tn

“4° ae cr

Zr ls = t- 2

~ -

cn «

(Tins CE THERMCCOUSEE:

o-4

em (2D += f~ e “D e- 20 ale m

= om on

"FOR A WIND CPEED OF° FU: "m/sec"

morPpPonmaraonco o~ (O oe «= CO «

mire

Caisulestisns

b-- +r TOT AOR

d -— oo

ome GQ ~

nO ©

t=O To 2 am assuming the relsttcocnshiao fer

DB 4 mt Dp er (1 oe

=. Stl Alt ooo eee

and Ss are finssr wet AL: he Vslces were taken from PROWM snd 6000

The relaticnships for F,Acow,Mu,Nu, and “ are taken § HANDSOOK of GEOPHYSICS snd the SPACE ENVIRONMENT chao 14

and bessd sn 3 U.S. Stenderd Atmcspherse

This is taken from the Standard Atmosphere Tempersturse Profile

} { Ee com. GEE-(Aits 201419355) t } L '

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POINT “ALT° ALS, "ROW i Asow, “MU° Mu, CONUS Nu

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APPENDIX C CONDUCTANCE PROGRAM

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LIST OF REFERENCES

Bloemberge, N., Patel, C. K. N., et al., "The Science and Technology of Directed Energy Weapons," Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 59, No. 3, Part 2, Chapter 5, The American Physical Society, July 1987.

Good, R. E., et. al., Atmosphere Characterization at

the HIDL Site CLEAR II Program, 26 February-9 March 1985, ASL-TR-0204,Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory,

White Sands, New Mexico, 1985.

Walters, D. L., Favier, D. L., and Hines, J. R., "Vertical Path Atmospheric MTF Measurements," Journal

of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 69,pp.828-837, 19797.

Stevens, K. B., Remote Measurement of the Atmospheric Isoplanatic Angle and Determination of Refractive Turbulence Profiles by Direct Inversion of the Scintillation Amplitude Covariance Function with Tikhonov Regularization, P.H.D. Dissertation, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, December 1985.

Walters, D. L. and Kunkel, kK. E., “Atmospheric Modulation Transfer Function for Desert and Mountain Locations: The Atmospheric Effects of r,," Journal of

the Optical Society of America, Vol. 71, pp. 397-405, T9681

Weingartner, F. J., Development of an Acoustic Echosounder for Detection of Lower Level Atmospheric Turbulence, M.S. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, June 1987.

Brown, J. H., Good, R. E., Bench, P. M. and Faucher,

G., Sonde Experiments for Comparative Measurements of Optical Turbulence, AFGL-TR-82-0079, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, 1982.

Tatarski, V. I., Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium, Dover Publications, New York, 1961.

Fried, D. L., “Anisoplanatism in Adaptive Optics,"

Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 72, pp. 52-61, 1982.

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Clifford, S. F., "The Classical Theory of Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium," Topics in Applied

Physics, Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere, Vol. 25, Chapter 2, Springer-Verlag, 1978.

Kunkel, K. E. and Walters, D. L., “Behavior of the Temperature Structure Parameter in a Desert Basin,"

Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 20, pp. 130-136, February 1981.

Wesely, M. L., "The Combined Effects of Temperature and Humidity Fluctuations on Refractive Index,"

Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 15, pp. 43-49, January 1976.

Lawrence, R. S., Ochs, G. R. and Clifford, S. F., "Measurements of Atmospheric Turbulence Relevant to

Optical Propagation," Journal of the Optical Society of America, Vol. 60, No. 6, pp. 826-830, June 1970.

Tennekes, H. and Lumley, J. L., A First Course _ in Turbulence, The M.1ts Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1972.

Gossard, E. E., "Finestructure of Elevated Stable Layers observed by Sounder and In Situ Tower Sensors,"

Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, Vol. 42, No. 20, pp. 2156-2169, October 1985.

Kinzie, P. A., Thermocouple Temperature Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973. Boerdijk, A. H., “Contributions to a General Theory

of Thermocouples," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 30, No. 7, July 1959.

Linear Technologies Handbook, Linear Technologies Corporation, 1986.

Frederickson, T. C., Intuitive IC OP AMPS, National Semiconductor Technology Series, 1984.

OMEGA Temperature Handbook, OMEGA Engineering INC., 1988.

Perry, A. E., Hot-wire Anemometry, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982.

22.

PA ps

24.

25.

26.

2/.

28.

29.

30.

Kreith, F., Principles of Heat Transfer, International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1968.

Brown, J. H. and Good, R. E., Thermocouple and UHF Radar Measurements of C* at Westford Massachusetts- July 1981, AFGL-TR-84-0109, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, 1984.

Campbell, G. S., Measurements of Air Temperature

Fluctuations with Thermocouples, Atmospheric Science Laboratory, White Sands, New Mexico, 1969.

Kramers, H., “Heat Transfer from Spheres to Flowing Media," Physica, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 61-80, June 1946.

Cadet, D., “Energy Dissipation within Intermittent Clear Air Turbulence Patches," Journal of the

Atmospheric Sciences, Vol. 34, pp. 137-142, January 1977.

Brown, J. H. and Beland, R. H., fer Measurements at AMOS, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts, March 1986.

Moxcey, L. R., Utilization of Dense Packed Planar

Acoustic Echosounders to Identify Turbulence

Structures in the Lowest Levels of the Atmosphere, M.S. Thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey,

California, December 1987.

Ochs, G. R. and Hill, R. J., "Optical-Scintillation Method of Measuring Turbulence Inner Scale," Applied Optics, Vol. 24, No. 15, pp. 2430-2432, August 1985.

Hill, R. J. and Clifford, S. F., "Modified Spectrum of Atmospheric Temperature Fluctuations and its Application to Optical Propagation," J. Opt. Soc. AM., Vol. 68, No. 7, pp. 892-899, July 1978.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, J. A., Theory and Fundamental Research in Heat Transfer, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1963.

Elsasser, W. M., Heat Transfer by Infrared Radiation in the Atmosphere, Harvard University Printing Office, Cambridge,

Massachusetts, 1942.

Feygel’son, Ye. M. and Tsvang, L. R., Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere, NASA TT £-790, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC, July 1974.

Jursa, A. S. ed., Handbook of Geophysics and the Space Environment, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, Air Force

Systems Command, 1985.

Lettau, H. H. and Davidson, B., Exploring the Atmosphere’s First Mile, Vol. 1, Pergamon Press, New York, 1957.

Smol’yakov, A. V. and Tkachenko, V. M., The Measurement of Turbulent Fluctuations, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983.

Wolfe, W. L. and Zissis, G. J. eds., The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research, Washington, DC, 1978.

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST

. Defense Technical Information Center Cameron Station Alexandria, VA 22304-6145

. Library, Code 0142 Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943-5002

. Prof. Donald L. Walters

Department of Physics (Code 61We) Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943-5004

LT Michael Olmstead 531 Park Ave. Laurel Springs NJ 08021

Space Defense Initiative Organization SDIO/DE

1717 H Street

Washington, D.C. 20301

Research Administration Office Code 012

Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943-5000

Kenneth J. Johnson

Code 4130

Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C. 20375-5000

Thesis 0472 el

Olmstead

Development of a differential temperature probe for the measure- ment of atmospheric tur- bulence at all levels.

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